The Merchant of Venice was previously named The Jew of Venice (Jimenez, 2011, 1). The name ‘Jew’ in the title indicates Jews were at the forefront of discussions in Renaissance England, and more importantly at the center of Shakespeare’s thoughts. Hence, Shakespeare embraces an anti-semitic approach during the characterization of Shylock. Shylock’s psychological complex character is revealed through his speech, appearance, actions and thoughts. Furthermore, other characters’ actions mold Shylock’s behaviour. Shakespeare reveals prejudices, stereotypes and hypocritical ideologies that were present in Renaissance England. Jews were considered to be different by race and ethics, but racial differences ‘may not have been a reality but racial thinking’ (Shapiro 1996, 11). In society Jews had been isolated and stereotyped because of their religious differences (11). Consequently, anti-semitism has been virulent for over two thousand years stemming from the death of Jesus which lead to Romans invading Jerusalem in ’70 AD’ (Hently 2008, 305), and this contributed to Jewish diaspora. Anti-semitism is the act of being hostile, prejudiced and unfair towards Jews in society. Xenophobia is a hatred or fear of people from other countries. My purpose is to analyze how Shakespeare exposes financial, social, racial, and moral ideas held in Renaissance England, which unite to form an overpowering image of Shylock as the Jew. I will discuss how representations of Jews in Renaissance theatre influenced Shakespeare’s representation of Shylock. Furthermore, modern sensibilities will be explored, which have led directors like Michael Radford to emphasize key aspects of Shylock’s character.
In the Renaissance there was a general stereotype constructed in theatre representing Jews. As Shakespeare’s play reveals similarities to Christopher Marlow’s play The Jew of Malta (1592). Shylock is repeatedly presented as a dog in the play; ‘You call me misbeleeuer, cut-throate dog’ (The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii 113). This imagery is similarly viewed in The Jew of Malta when Barabas responds to Christian hatred and says: ‘Heave up my shoulders when they call me dog’ (Jew of Malta 1592. II.iii.24). The Jew of Malta was written before Shakespeare wrote The Merchant of Venice, and it is said that Marlowe’s anti-semitic play had been revitalized in theatre by Dr. Rodrigo Lopez’s trial. Hotline writes: ‘Critics have noted the revival of Marlow’s The Jew of Malta at the Rose theatre at the time of Roderigo Lopez’s trial and execution in 1594’ (Hotline 1991, 35). Critics believe Shakespeare wrote The Merchant of Venice ‘about a Jew to emulate the success’ of Marlowe’s work (Mahoon 2003, 7). Though Shakespeare is providing a different representation of Barabbas viewed in society, which Marlowe has taken from the Bible. Marlowe’s unsympathetic portrayal of Barabbas and Shakespeare’s creation of Shylock reveals how Jews were generally portrayed as villains in Elizabethan theatre.
Hence, in Renaissance theatre Shylock was given red hair so he would fit the stereotypical appearance of Jews, and this made him distinguishable on stage from Christians. This idea came from Judas Iscariot who was ‘depicted to have red hair, beard and skin’ (Paffenroth 2001, 50). Though in the old and new Testament there are no clear references to this. Paradoxically, Judaism is a religion and not a race, but due to jurisdictions of the religion for instance the idea of purity. Jews were perceived in a certain manner that develops a race that is not an actual race, which is presented in the use of red hair. This image of red haired Jews in theatre can be traced back to 1596. Edmund Spenser wrote a letter to Gabriel Harvey concerning his experience of theatre in Renaissance England:
Eudox: Doe you thinke that the mantle cometh from the Scythians? I would surely thinke otherwyse, for by that which I have redd, it appeareth that most nacons in the world auntiently used the mantle. For the Jewes used it, as you may reed of Elias mantle, of [blank] . (Spenser, 1596)
Edmund Spenser’s quotation provides us with an insight into the theatres of Renaissance England. London theatres generally held anti-semitic views as Jewish portrayals and appearances were hand crafted and rarely true depictions of the time. Theatres of London were approaching the representation of Jews as satirical figures in relation to Stephen Gosson, which Shakespeare adopts in Shylock.
This false appearance created by Christians resonates in the 1623 folio and in Michael Radford’s film interpretation The Merchant of Venice (2004) as Shylock says: ‘For suffrance is the badge of all our Tribe.’ (The Merchant of Venice 1623. Iiii. 112). Shakespeare sympathetically parodies the religious differences placed on Jews in Renaissance England as he presents real situations with humor. Shylock has been constructed as a character that can be read in many ways through Shakespeare’s use of language. The badge displays the sufferance, segregation and unfair treatment placed onto Jews by Christians. Jews were ‘required to wear badges and caps’ so they could easily be distinguished in society (Lyon 1988, 16). Hence, there is no racial difference between Jews and Christians as Jews had to wear distinctive clothing to be recognized. Max Hastings questions: ‘How many thousands of Christians have been prejudiced against the whole tribe of Israel by Shakespeare’s Shylock, though they have never seen a Jew?’ (Hasting 2004: 40). We should also question Shakespeare’s evidence taken from Renaissance society, which base their judgments from the bible. One source vilifying the Jews for saving Barabbas that led to the death of Jesus (James 1900, 698). Shakespeare conjures the stereotypes placed on the tribe of Jews in the Renaissance that he parodies through the character of Shylock.
Furthermore, Shylock is introduced to the play as a stereotypical Jew desiring money and his first line speaks of ‘Three thousand ducats…’ (The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii 1). Shakespeare has created Shylock with complex thoughts because his speech links financial, religious and moral issues to justify his behaviour. For example in Act one, Scene three Shakespeare places into Shylock’s thoughts and obsession with The Old Testament, which he turns to for moral directions:
No, not take interest, not as you would say
Directly interest, marke what Jacob did,
When Laban and himself were compremyz’d.
(The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii. 77-79)
Shakespeare has created Shylock as a real person not a one-dimensional figure because he is able to justify his behavior, for example he asks Antonio to question his own moralities in accordance with The Old Testament. In the book of Genesis Jacob gave Laban feeble cattle and kept the stronger cattle, so the cattle ‘increased exceedingly’ (James 1900, 24). Shakespeare uses the cattle as a trick that ‘was based on the belief that offspring resembled whatever the mother sees at their conception’ (Mahoon 2003, 86). Mahoon suggests that Shylock draws on every opportunity to increase his wealth and does not consider the harm it may cause. Shylock’s language subverts acts of borrowing money on interest into a religious act. The sentence above displays Shakespeare’s stereotypical view of Shylock as a Jewish moneylender. Shakespeare places the story of Jacob and Laban into Shylock’s speech to shows Jewish minds were trapped in The Old Testament ideas of forgiveness, as Shylock adopts the most oldest and poisonous morals.
More significantly, by creating Shylock as a moneylender Shakespeare instantly places him within a hated profession. The Renaissance viewed usury as a sin that was looked down upon. As Aristotle states:
‘The most hated sort… is usury, which makes a gain out of money itself… the birth of money from money, is applied to the breeding of money because the offspring resembles the parent… modes of getting wealth is the most unnatural. (Jowett 2007, 14-15)
This is presented in Shylock’s speeches as Shakespeare makes usury Shylock’s ‘merrie sport’ (The Merchant of Venice 1 I.iii. 139). Shakespeare depicts individuals like Shylock that have been corrupted by the religion of Judaism. The wickedness Shakespeare injects into Shylock as he says; ‘This kindnesse will I showe’ (The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii. 146) is a pun that uses dramatic irony in reinforcing the breeding process of Shylock’s true intentions, which is repeated when Antonio says: ‘And say there is much kindness in Jew’ (The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii. 156). Shakespeare plays on Shylock’s Jewish “otherness” as an evil old father that is heightened in comparison to young Christians. Suzanne Penuel examines this paternal relationship and reinforces the merchant as ‘children to literal parents, debtor to creator and Christian to Judaism’ (Penuel 2004, 255). More importantly as White states Aristotle’s politics were highly regarded in Renaissance England (White 1996, 54). Aristotle’s quotation provides us with an insight into views of moneylending at the time. By situating Shylock as a usurer Shakespeare draws parallels to the Renaissance society, and exposes the larger situation of Jews restrained from working in any other sector during the Renaissance.
Also, Shakespeare is revealing how ‘usury was ‘a trade brought in by the Jews’ (Langis 2011). Shakespeare enforces the blame of all financial evilness into the character of Shylock because Jews were a scapegoat for Christians, and supposedly a cause of all problems. Frances Bacon highlights the paradox of bad attitudes and a necessity for usury in the commercial trade:
… were it not for this easy borrowing upon interest, men’s necessities would draw upon them a most sudden undoing … whereas usury doth but gnaw upon them, bad markets would swallow them quite up… that is vanity to conceive that there would be ordinary borrowing without profit; and it is impossible to conceive the number of inconveniences that will ensue, if borrowing be cramped. (Bacon 2002, 422)
Shakespeare imposes a breeding metaphor into Shylock’s language that emphasizes Bacon’s use of vanity held in usurers as Shylock says: ‘I cannot tell, I make it breede as fast’ (The Merchant of Venice 1. Iiii. 97). Shakespeare has turned Shylock into a farce as Shylock’s speech carries excessive pride for his work as a usurer. Ironically, Jews tended to disregard the hatred Christians had for them in Renaissance England. As Bacon states hate was only attributed onto Shylock when things went wrong for example, when Antonio could not pay back his sum. There is internal hate for Jews in the conscious minds of Christians, which was expressed in society when Christians were under threat by the power of Jewish wealth. Bacon’s quotation emphasizes the hypocrisy in the commercial trade of usury, which Shakespeare satirically places into the characterization of Shylock.
As a result, Shylock is perceived as a hypocrite because there was strong criticism against moneylending as medieval differences were still heard in ‘1594’ (Mahoon 2003, 20). In general the Elizabethans looked upon usury as opposing the law of nations, nature, and god (Mahoon 2003, 20). In the gospel lending to receive more was a sin: ‘lend, hoping for nothing again… for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil (James, 1900, 725). This is what propels Shylock’s hatred because Antonio ‘lends out money gratis and brings downe/ The rate of usance …’ (The Merchant of Venice 1 I.iii. 41-42). Shakespeare portrays this through Shylock’s speech:
Yes, to smell porke, to eate of the habitation
which your Prophet the Nazarite coniured the divell
into: I will buy with you, sell with you, talke with
you, walke with you, and so following: but I will
not eate with you, drinke with you, nor pray with you.
(The Merchant of Venice 1 Iiii. 32-36)
The syntax Shakespeare has created in Shylock’s language enables him to respond starkly to justify his actions. The blank verse forms a dactylic rhythm and the hard-hitting consonants depict Shylock’s hateful attitude as his emotions travel through his language. Here Shakespeare parodies Shylock’s rejection to eat pork because it contains the devil. Shylock says he will not eat with Christians however his actions do not match his view: ‘But yet Ile goe in hate, feed upon/ prodigal Christian (The Merchant of Venice 1 IIiiiii: 15-16). This quotation displays Shylock desire and need to fit into the community, nevertheless he is placed on the margins of society. When Shylock is given this opportunity to feast with Christians he takes it whole-heartedly as this allows him into the Christian society, which he is otherwise segregated from.
In contrary to Shakespeare’s satirical representation of Shylock, Radford’s (2004) film interpretation presents Shylock in a sympathetic light. The film commences at act one, scene three as Radford reveals other characters’ hostile behavior to Shylock through the use of camera shots, which expose the setting of anti-semitism before the scene even begins. Radford has chosen to substitute the play’s language with imagery and camera techniques. This translation of the play displays the conflict between Christians and Jews. Lines thirty-eight to forty-nine have been removed from this scene to centralize the sympathetic Jewish figure of Shylock and silence his hatred for Christians. There are minor references to Shylock defending the act of usury for instance; Jacob and Laban’s story alters the image of Jews as sly moneylenders. Antonio’s behavior is specifically and personally directed at Shylock, and the audience view Shylock as the victim. Furthermore, elements have been added such as Shylock being spat on. In the 1623 folio there is only one reference to spitting: ‘And spet upon my Jewish gaberdine’ (The Merchant 1. Iiii.114). Here Shakespeare mocks the value of Jews however Radford’s interpretation physically displays the spitting which changes Shakespeare’s interpretation. By focusing on Shylock’s self-pride and silencing his hatred for Christians Radford has turned the satirical play into a tragedy. Due to modern sensibilities interpretations have changed Shakespeare’s satirical Jewish image of Shylock to a serious sympathetic victim.
Evidently, Shakespeare has chosen to reveal Shylock’s personality in reference to the context of Renaissance England, Shakespeare draws our attention to the prejudices of the time as Jews had been banned from charging interest in ‘1275’ and further expelled from England in ‘1290’ (Shapiro 1996, 53, 46). Hence the minority of Jews in England did not exercise usury, and consequently the English inhabited this practice. As Hotline states:
The money-lenders of London were Christians- from Horatio Palavicino … Thomas Sutton… Phillip Henslowe himself and the Pawnbrokers… Ten percent was considered a fair return, but there were ways of increasing it. … the English moneylenders were worse than the Jews . (Hotline 1991, 37)
Jews were a convenient scapegoat to prevent tarnishing the names of Christians as usurers, which lead to Jews like Shylock being hated and unfairly treated in society. For example, Radford’s interpretation (2004) emphasizes the location of the ghetto as the opening screen credit states: ‘By law the Jews were forced to live in the old walled foundry or Ghetto area of the City’ (Radford 2004). This shows the hostility directed to Shylock because he is a Jew. As O’Rouke states the small numbers of Jews living in Britain were placed far from the English in the ‘Ghetto’ (O’Rouke 2003, 386). The prejudice inflicted on Jews was religious and commercially driven, as Shylock’s characterization highlights problematic responses and xenophobia towards Jews by Christians in Renaissance England.
Equally, Shakespeare draws on the overriding opinion of society that if you were Italian you were segregated from society like Jews. Christians regarded anyone who was not English and Christian as a threat, and especially the Italians because they brought wealth into the city of London during the Renaissance. Shakespeare draws general allegories to subtly mock the Italians under the Jews. As Lyon states: ‘Jews were more available to the English as concept than as persons, more vivid as sites of speculation than as doers of deeds’ (Lyon 1988, 16). Because of the minority number of Jews Christians were able to see their vulnerability and place the blame onto them. This is clearly presented in Radford’s film as the imagery presents the antithesis between Christians and Jews. As O’Rouke argues the opposition between Jews and Christians enforces a stereotypical assumption of, ‘Christians to the Venetian character… stereotyping of Jews and Italians’ (O’Rouke 2003, 375-376). O’Rouke asserts, there was a xenophobic presence in Renaissance England as Italian usurers were mocked because as merchants they were more successful than English merchants, and this raised jealousy in the English (375). Xenophobia works under the structure of Shakespeare’s anti-semitic stance placed onto Shylock. The word Jew repeated fifty-eight times overpowers the smaller more complex problems in Shylock’s characterization, as he has been generalized to this predominant image as the Jew.
For instance, act three, scene one presents the image of the Jew that raises an egalitarian shift in perspective which changes the emotions of the play, as Shakespeare evokes sympathy through Shylock’s character:
… I am a Jewe: Hath not a Jew eyes? hath not a
Jew hands, organs, dementions, senses, affections, passi-
ons …(The Merchant of Venice 1. III.i. 51-53)
The monosyllabic nouns and verbs provide dramatic exaggeration that is displayed in Al Pacino’s performance. In Radford’s interpretation Al Pacino performs this scene to defend Shylock’s humanity after his daughter has eloped. Radford’s interpretation plays to the sympathy of Shylock because he is portrayed as the victim. In comparison Edmund Kean performed the role of Shylock in ‘1814’ theatre (Mahoon 2003, 122), as Mahoon states Kean emphasized the repetition of ‘revenge’, which stressed his evil intentions, and he was ‘hissed’ off stage (122). Similarly Michael Billington wrote an article concerning the production held in 1998 Stratford’s Globe theatre as he states: ‘Jew(s) being hissed in south London’ whilst The Merchant of Venice was being performed in the Globe, as they attempted to recreate the 1590 Renaissance performance (O’Rouke 2003, 392). These performances show that due to the energy flowing around the hall in Renaissance theatre, this would heighten the depth of emotion towards anti-semitism. This sentence pauses the action and the attention is positioned onto Shylock, as viewers are asked to question the inequality in society. Shakespeare presents us with a stereotypical Jewish moneylender with psychologically perplexed speeches.
Jews were primarily portrayed in this manner due to the harsh differences and inequalities placed onto Jews in the Renaissance. Shakespeare wrote The Merchant of Venice in ‘1594’ (Jimenez 2011, 1) a year after the Lopez’s trial and Shakespeare seems to be drawing on the response Lopez would have given in court for justice in Shylock’s speech. As Shylock says:
What Judgment shall I dread, doing no wrong?
You have among you many a purchased slave,
Which, like your Asses and your Dogs and Mules,
You use in albeit and in slavish parts,
Because you brought them. shall I say to you,
Let them be free, marrie them to your heires?
Why sweate they under burthens? let their beds
Be made as soft as yours: and let their pallats
Be season’d with such Viands? You will answer
The slaves are ours. So do I answer you.
(The Merchant of Venice 1. IV.i 91- 100)
Shakespeare’s use of heightened language in Shylock’s speeches can be associated with the ‘1593’ (Lyon 1994, 17) trial of Doctor Rodrigo Lopez, and the unfair treatment he received by the English because he was a Spanish Jew conversos. As, Lopez was thought to have participated in the attempt to poison Queen Elizabeth 1st (Lyon 1994, 17). The representation of Shylock responses parallels Lopez’s provocative speech in court for justice, as Shylock questions his inhuman treatment. Shakespeare asks the reader to question why Lopez and Shylock are treated so harshly. Furthermore, during the time the play was performed audiences would have been aware of Shakespeare’s interconnections of political scenarios he places into Shylock’s character. Shakespeare asks the reader to question why Lopez and Shylock are treated so harshly. Primarily this resulted from disputes like the ‘1588’ Spanish Armada (Lathbury 1945, 1), as there was a continual threat to the monarchy from Spain. Also, the underlying problem was as Shapiro states ‘Jews were living in England who practiced their faith in private,’ and this resulted to a Jewish presence in England (Shapiro 1996, 58). Jewish converts and Marrano’s (secret Jews) were accepted into society like Lopez’s family until there was a problem in society. Jews were the first to be interrogated, and were placed in a vulnerable position in the Renaissance. By drawing on Lopez’s trial Shakespeare emphasizes the problems with identity in Renaissance England because appearances are unclear.
Hence, Shylock as the ‘Jew’ is a victim of anti-semitism and under this image there rests the problem of xenophobia as the play brings forth images of national differences. Schlock’s racial appearance is the same as Christians however Shylock, as the Jew has no native homeland. Jews were scattered around national states and countries voluntarily and forcefully. The word Jew is problematic because in Renaissance England it represented a tribe’s racial and national differences. How can you stereotype against a person’s nation when they do not have one native homeland? Shapiro argues that:
What sets Shylock apart is his religion had deflected attention away from the more complex ways in which Shakespeare situates Jews within a larger, confused network of national and racial otherness. For Shakespeare’s contemporaries, Jews were not identified by their religion but by national and racial affiliations as well. (Shapiro 1996, 173)
This further validates the argument that national and racial prejudices are raised under Shylock’s characterization as ‘the Jew’. Shakespeare wants the readers to look behind the name to unravel the larger problems in society for instance the financial and political problems. Moreover, Shakespeare leaves it to the audience’s knowledge to generate the true racial problem in Renaissance England. These are issues that were largely discussed in the Renaissance however Shakespeare does not make this his focal concern in the characterization of Shylock.
Consequently, the interconnections of xenophobic issues are raised under the strong imagery of blood that resonates through Shylock’s speeches. This image refers to the pureness of Jews; biblical references; the deaths and massacres; moments of pathos for the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions. Shylock’s revenge is directed to the physical and psychologically corrupted minds of Christians. The repeated reference to the ‘pound of flesh’ wanted from Antonio’s ‘breast’ (The Merchant of Venice 1.IIIIi. 101, 115) is a metaphor for ‘the heartlessness of Venice’ (Ryan 2003, 38). This displays the evilness presented in Jews and in the system of usury. Shakespeare problematizes the imagery of blood taken from the pound of flesh as it plays on the immorality of Venetian society. This imagery peaks in the trial scene as it presents the corruption held in the law of Renaissance England. Shylock is shown through the play to meticulously abide by the law, which is unlawfully changed in the hands of Christians. Again Shylock justifies and questions the inequalities in society as he interrogates: ‘You have among you many a purchased slave’ (The Merchant of Venice 1 IV.i.92). Appearance versus realty is a key theme in Shakespeare’s work as Shylock’s questions and need for justice unravels a society that is glossed over as civil, but under the surface rests the incivility, savagery and a corrupted society by the greed for wealth over human equality. Shakespeare approaches the representation of Shylock with an anti-semitic mind because it is the only way to receive justice from Christians. However, from trying to receive justice for the inequalities of Jews Shakespeare paints a deeper image of the smaller more complex situations, which lead up to this one generalization of Shylock as the Jew.
In conclusion, it is clear that the characterization of Shylock is a demonstration of anti-semitism. Shakespeare creates Shylock as a Jew presented through the stereotypes, prejudices and hypocrisies inflicted into his complex thoughts, speeches, appearance, and action, which were present in Renaissance society. Shakespeare adopts all the problematical situations presented at the time and places this into Shylock. Furthermore, through Shylock’s character you can see the animosity placed onto him because he is Jewish. Shakespeare deliberately portrays Shylock as a usurer, who carries the old testament moralities with red hair wearing a badge, which all add to Shylock’s stereotypical image Shakespeare places into his persona to display him as a Jew hated by society. All the implications of how Renaissance society would perceive Jews are placed into Shylock. Though, there are no clear references to Shylock as a demonstration of xenophobia there are points in which interconnection and allegories can be raised, though an awareness of history is needed in order to grasp these references. Hence Shakespeare has created Shylock as a psychologically complex character who is presented as a Jew, but there are manifold implications and connotations associated with the label of Jew.
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Harmeet Dhiraj 